Library

YRDSB Equitable Assessment, Evaluation and Communication of Student Learning and Achievement policy. 

There are different methods for gathering data:

Primary Research 

Primary Research is first hand evidence from the time of the event or from people who have experienced the event or issue. Primary research includes...accounts from people who experienced an event, photographs, artefacts, observations, etc.

Secondary Research 

Secondary Research is second hand accounts of events or issues. Secondary research includes...biographies, history books and web pages written by people who haven’t experienced the event/issue first hand.

Types of Research

The 3 major methods used to gather data are:

1. Descriptive – observing and recording
2. Correlational – the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or theories
3. Experimental – one or more factors believed to influence the behaviour being studied are manipulated, while all other factors are held constant (This is unlikely to be used at the high school level)

Social scientists follow formal procedures when conducting research.

The Inquiry Method involves 5 main steps.

1.Ask a Question

Identify a Problem or Question to be studied.

A problem or question indicates a plan of action. When formulating a problem draw on theories that will develop a hypothesis. Put the problem into the form of a question.

Example: The impact driving has on teenagers = Do students who own or have regular access to a car have lower grades in school?

Develop a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a possible answer to the problem; it is a specific prediction that can be tested to determine accuracy. It narrows the focus of your research, eliminates unnecessary research, time, and energy and will determine what information needs to be gathered.

Example: Owning or having regular access to a car does negatively impact teens' grades.

2. Gather and Organize

Gather research that is appropriate to the question & hypothesis. Possible methods: case studies, sample surveys, experiments, interviews, observation, historical research, official statistics, review of literature. The method you choose will depend on what you hope to learn.

Example: Conduct a survey: how many teens own cars, how often they have access to a car, & what grades do they achieve, etc.?

3. Interpret and Analyze

Data can be quantitative (numbers, stats, structured observation notes) or qualitative (observation notes, interview transcripts). Data needs to be changed into evidence:

1. Separate data into 2 categories: relevant & irrelevant data
2. Interpret the data (i.e. divide info that supports & refutes the hypothesis, convert numbers into percentages, put data into graphs/charts, etc.)
3. Analyse data how it supports the hypothesis, how it fails to support the hypothesis, or does neither

4. Evaluate and Draw Conclusions

Use these questions to help with using the data to answer the hypothesis:

1. What information is most convincing?
2. What information should be kept and what should be discarded?
3. What patterns are taking shape?
4. What themes, topics, or categories are emerging?
5. What headings and subheadings does the information fall into?
6. What viewpoints can be supported by the information?
7. What arguments can be made?
8. What is missing?
9. What generalizations can be made by the research?
10. What conclusions are taking place?

5. Communicate Findings

Conclusion:  The answer to the question initially asked. Conclusions can show one of 4 outcomes:

1. The evidence supports the hypothesis.
2. There is some evidence to support the hypothesis.
3. The evidence does not support the hypothesis.
4. The evidence supports an alternative hypothesis.

There are endless amounts of information available on the Internet...where to even begin?

Search Engines:

• Will search for matches to words, terms, phrases
• Will retrieve a lot of information
• Will provide related search words, terms, phrases to assist in the search

Searches Related To:

• At the bottom of the search there is a list of searches related to the search word, term or phrase
• Useful for finding more specific information
• Useful for narrowing a large topic down to important sub-topics

Advanced Search:

• The type of search is called a Boolean search (named after the guy…)
• This will help narrow down the amount of information even further 

Helpful Links:

• Evaluating Information, from University of Toronto
• Evaluating sources: Use the CRAAP test, from Carleton University
• PARCA Test from York University
• RADAR Test from Western University

• UofT: Why Cite?
• Seneca: MLA Guide
• Purdue: MLA Guide
• Seneca: APA Guide
• Purdue: APA Guide 

Use the following steps to begin research on your topic.

1. Choose a Topic. Start with topics that you find interesting.
2. Understand the Assignment. Review the format and writing style based on your teacher’s instructions.
3. Get an Overview.
   1. Look at online encyclopedias and other general reference sources, even Wikipedia!
   2. Websites, textbooks and class notes are also a good place to start
4. Brainstorm (use one of the following).
   1. Think of keywords:
      1. Create list(s) of words to describe your topic
   2. Create a concept map:
      1. A visual breakdown of your topic (see example below)
      2. Identify different parts of your topic which will branch off to various related ideas
   3. Broaden your topic:
      1. If your topic if it is too specific, expand your focus to a larger area
      2. Try including country, continent, or time period
   4. Narrow your topic:
      1. Narrow your topic if there is an overwhelming amount of information
      2. Focus more closely on a geographical area, concept or species
5. Develop a Research Question. Describe your research goal in the form of a statement or question. The answer to your research question will become your main argument or thesis

*Adapted from Ontario Tech Libraries. 

There are three ways of using research in your own writing: Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing

Quoting

A quote is the exact wording of the material. Quotes match the original source word for word. Quotations should be used occasionally and MUST be sourced using citations. You might use quotations for the following reasons:

1. Accuracy: You can’t paraphrase or summarize the material without changing the author’s intent.
2. Authority: You want to demonstrate expert authority to provide solid evidence.
3. Conciseness: Your attempts to paraphrase or summarize are awkward or too long.
4. Unforgettable language: The words of the author are memorable or remarkable.
5. Uniqueness: You intend to comment on words or phrases themselves.

**You must avoid a paper that is a string of quotes - this is a version of plagiarism**

Paraphrasing

A paraphrase is research recreated in your own words but nearly identical in meaning to the original. Paraphrasing is detailed and specific and MUST be sourced using citations. You might use paraphrasing for the following reasons:

1. To change the organization of ideas so you can emphasize points most related to your paper.
2. To simplify complex arguments, sentences, or vocabulary.
3. To clarify clarify technical ideas or specialized information into more accessible language. When you decide to paraphrase, avoid keeping the same structure of ideas, sentence structure, or just changing some of the words. Be careful not to add your ideas into the paraphrase.

Summarizing

A summary is a shortened version of the research you have read. It is similar to paraphrasing, but when summarizing you will use your own words and writing style to present only the most essential ideas of the original text. It MUST be sourced using citations.You may summarize for the following reasons:

1. To condense. You may have to reduce the material to draw out information related to your paper.
2. To omit. You may have to omit extra information from the research you have found to focus on the author’s main points. Avoid keeping the same structure or just changing some of the words. Do not add your ideas into the summary.

*Adapted from Ontario Tech Libraries. 

A thesis statement is a sentence that states the argument, what you think about it, and how you will prove it. It serves as the basis of your argument and guides your entire essay.

Creation of a Thesis Statement:

Specific argument + Argument/Perspective/Message = Thesis

Your argument + How you will support that argument = Thesis

Getting Started:

1. Create a research question based on your class assignment.
2. Start to read about your topic to generate more ideas for your research and writing.
3. Collect facts from articles and form opinions about articles.
4. Generate your own ideas about the topic using these facts and opinions.
5. Create a 1-2 sentence answer to your research question that tells the main idea of the essay.

Topic vs. Thesis Statement:

Topic: the general subject of the essay e.g. Taking risks

Thesis statement: 1 to 2 sentences that tell the reader your argument and how you will prove it e.g. Biological need, social environment, and psychological satisfaction are reasons why people take risks.

Components of Thesis Statements:

1. Topic: the general subject of the essay e.g. Teenage Smokers
2. Controlling idea: your opinion/belief/view/feeling about the topic e.g. Public health departments need aggressive promotional campaigns
3. Sub-topics: the areas you will focus on to support your idea e.g. Damages the lungs, increases the risk of cancer, raises the chance of heart disease

Thesis statement: Public health departments need to target teenage smokers with aggressive promotional campaigns to combat lung damage, cancer, and heart disease among this group.

Creating a Thesis Statement from a Research Question:

The thesis statement in an essay should answer your research question.

Research question: Why do people become homeless?

Thesis statement: The lack of affordable housing, inadequate public assistance, and the breakdown of the family are three causes of homelessness.

A Strong Thesis Statement Should:

• Take a position that others might challenge.
• Watch out for words like “bad,” “all,” “good,” or “every” in your thesis. General phrases stop your thesis from being specific and strong.
• Answer the questions “How”? and “Why”? Asking your thesis these questions will make your thesis stronger and more specific.
• Pass the “So What?” test? You want your thesis to have significance to your reader.

It is okay to revise your thesis! As you begin writing, you may find that your mind is changing or the research is pulling you in another direction. From time to time, you should revisit your thesis and rework it. In theory, it should be one of the first things you write in your essay and one of the last.

*Adapted from Ontario Tech Libraries. 

Writing is a process. It is rarely perfect the first time, so students should view the process as several steps that work together to become a final product.

Steps in the Writing Process

1. Explore and Get Ideas: Brainstorm, Think, Research, Recall, Discuss, Read, React
   1. Collect information through your own ideas as well as research. Think about your topic and discuss these ideas with others. Evaluate themes, topics, and sources.
      1. Discuss interesting ideas
      2. Listen and share ideas
      3. Develop a research question
2. Organize Ideas: Focus, Structure, Distance Yourself, Frame, Design
   1. Plan the structure of your ideas, develop a main thesis and plan a structured outline.
      1. Create an outline
      2. Decide which information may be useful or relevant
      3. Identify how ideas relate to each other
3. Write: Discover, Inform, Critique, Analyze, Argue
   1. Develop your ideas through drafts. First: a record of your ideas. Second: explain how the research supports your main points. Third: ensure that the paragraph structure is correct and that sources and your own ideas blend well into each paragraph.
      1. Write a thesis statement
      2. Support your ideas
      3. Integrate your ideas and research into your paper
      4. Work on paragraph structure
      5. Paraphrase and summarize research
      6. Relate evidence to topic sentences
4. Revise and Edit: Adapt, Condense, Proofread, Reuse, Correct, Edit, Refine, Add ideas
   1. Focus on grammar, style, voice, consistency, formatting, and clarity in your writing. Make sure your words and phrases clearly express your intended meaning.
      1. Edit your own writing for grammar and spelling so it is easy to read and understand
      2. Revise your language and improve cohesion
      3. Document supporting evidence

*Adapted from Ontario Tech Libraries. Last updated May 2023.

Body Paragraph Structure - Five Main Components

1. Topic sentence. Introduce the topic; this is what the paragraph is about.
2. The Point. What is the point that you are making about the topic? Elaborate on your point clearly. Explain the significance of the point and how you are using it to develop the argument.
3. Evidence that Supports the Point. Evidence that is specific to the point you are making must be provided as support. This is how you validate your point. Your evidence can include direct quotations or paraphrased passages found through research. When quoting or paraphrasing, make sure to introduce what you quote or paraphrase by clearly stating who you are quoting or where the information you are paraphrasing has come from. You must also cite the source of the information.
4. Analysis of Evidence. After you have introduced and cited your evidence, provide an analysis of why the evidence was used, how it connects to your point, and ultimately, how your point and evidence combined prove your thesis. By doing this, you will have used your evidence with purpose and proven that your thesis is valid.
5. A Transition or a Closing Sentence. If another paragraph is required to prove your thesis, then you must transition to that next paragraph clearly and smoothly. A transition can be a word, a phrase, or a complete sentence. They are important because they help to guide the reader through your paragraphs in order to better understand the argument that you are developing.  If a transition to another paragraph is not necessary, then you must end with a closing sentence. Stress the importance of this topic, the point you have made and the evidence you have provided, and how you have proven that your thesis is correct. 

*Adapted from Ontario Tech Libraries. Last updated May 2023.

When correctly used, quotations can be an important part of your essay or report.

Use quotations only when absolutely necessary for impact. Most of the time, you will summarize in your own words the ideas that you read from other people. Remember that you MUST include citation! Make sure you include your own interpretation of the research. Too many direct quotations strung together often means that there is little of your own analysis. This is a version of plagiarism.

Direct quotations occur when you use the original author’s exact words; you MUST place quotation marks around them. The last quotation mark is followed by the citation and then the punctuation.

• Example:As Pool (1997) argues: “Modern technology is not simply the rational product of scientists and engineers that it is often advertised to be” (p. 9).

• Example:It is clear that “modern technology is not simply the rational product of scientists and engineers that it is often advertised to be” (Pool, 1997, p. 9).

For long direct quotations (more than 4 lines), the quotation must be set off from the rest of the text by indenting the whole quotation.

Indirect quotations occur when you summarize someone else’s ideas and put the ideas into your own words. We also call this paraphrasing. Even if you use your own words, you MUST give credit to the original author. Your summary MUST be followed by a citation to show the original source. Use MLA for all Arts and English-based classes, use APA for Science-based courses. 

Example: The popular media often presents modern technology as being created by scientists and engineers who always act in objective and rational ways. Scientists and engineers have just as many biases as anyone else and these biases often play a role in determining what technology is developed (Pool, 1997).

*Adapted from Ontario Tech Libraries. Last updated May 2023.

Introduction   

1. Opening Statement. Begin with a brief introduction to the overall topic.
2. Thesis Statement. A thesis statement is the argument about your topic. An argument includes two parts. First, state what you are proving to be true. Then provide the reasons that you will use to prove it. Note: a thesis statement is not always written as one sentence. 

Body Paragraphs

1. Reason #1
   1. Topic Sentence: begin the paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the first reason that will prove your argument. Note: this must be the first reason you wrote in your thesis statement.
   2. Point: make a point about the first reason. How does this first reason support the argument specifically? Explain the significance of the point and how you are using it to prove the argument.
   3. Evidence: provide evidence to show how your point is valid. Types of evidence: direct quotation, a statistic, or a strong example. Note: always introduce your evidence first by stating who you are quoting or where the information is coming from. You must always cite your source.
   4. Analysis: the most important part of the body paragraph. Explain how your point and evidence proves your argument is true. If you do not do this, then you are not arguing effectively.
   5. Transition: end the paragraph with a transition sentence.  Write a transition sentence that creates a link between this reason and the next reason in your next body paragraph.
2. Reason #2
   1. Topic Sentence: begin your paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the second reason that will prove the validity of your argument. Note: this must be the same second reason that you wrote in your thesis statement.
   2. Point: follow the same process as you did above.
   3. Evidence: follow the same process as you did above.
   4. Analysis: follow the same process as you did above.
   5. Close or Transition: follow the same process as you did above.
3. Reason #3
   1. Topic Sentence: begin your paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the third reason that will prove the validity of your argument. Note: this must be the same third reason that you wrote in your thesis statement.
   2. Point: follow the same process as you did above.
   3. Evidence: follow the same process as you did above.
   4. Analysis: follow the same process as you did above.
   5. Close or Transition: end the paragraph with a closing or transition sentence.  If this reason can prove that your argument is true on its own, then you must write a closing sentence that stresses the importance of this first reason and how it proves it. If it cannot, then you must write a transition sentence that creates a link between this first reason and the second reason in your next body paragraph.

Conclusion

1. Restate. The topic sentence must restate what you were proving to be true. Note: this is the first part of the thesis statement only.
2. Summarise. After you have restated what you were proving, summarise the main points made from each of the body paragraphs and explain how they have proven your argument. Note: remember that a summary is brief. Just touch on the big ideas from each reason that you provided as proof.
3. Closing sentence. End your essay with a final thought. Two effective strategies:
   1. end with a final comment on the importance of the topic.
   2. end with a final comment that leaves the reader with something to think about that extends beyond this essay. 

*Adapted from Ontario Tech Libraries. Last updated May 2023.

A good introduction defines for the reader what the essay is going to attempt to prove and states the main reasons that will be discussed to prove it. The introduction gives the reader a good idea of what the essay is about and how the writer intends to prove their argument. Begin with a general statement, and with each sentence that follows, get more and more specific until you get to the last sentence - a clearly stated thesis.

Example:

• General - Dealing with emotional issues can be both complicated and perplexing. 

• Less General - Now and then, a poet is willing to expose two distinct facets of their emotional nature. 

• A Bit Specific - Such a poet is courageous enough to look back on sadder times, as well as to recollect a fond memory--a writer honest enough to know that life includes both the swing of birches and the darker moments of the soul.

• A Little Specific - Robert Frost is such a poet. 

• Specific Thesis Statement - The difference in the tone of his poems “Birches” and “Acquainted with the Night” reveals a poet equally adept at portraying both the lighter and darker sides in life through his use of setting, imagery and structure.

*Together, these make up an effective introduction*

Ideas:

• Begin with a big picture sentence that is related to your topic .
• Begin with a quotation. Just make sure you explain its relevance.
• Begin with a thought-provoking question.
• Begin with an acknowledgment of an opinion opposite to the one you plan to take.
• Begin with a very short narrative or anecdote that has a direct bearing on your paper.
• Begin with an interesting fact.
• Begin with a definition or explanation of a term relevant to your essay.
• Begin with irony or paradox.
• Begin with an analogy. Make sure it’s original but not too far-fetched.

Tips:

• Write a tentative introduction first and then change it later.
• Try writing your introduction last. You may think that you have to write your introduction first, but that isn’t necessarily true, and it isn’t always the most effective way to craft a good introduction.

*Adapted from Ontario Tech Libraries. Last updated May 2023.

A conclusion is the opportunity to draw your whole essay together, show readers why your point or argument is important and how you have proven it with your reasons. It gives the essay a sense of completeness and significance.

Ideas:

• Echo the introduction: This is a good strategy if your aim is to bring your reader full-circle and show them how much they’ve learned about your topic during the course of reading your paper.
• Challenge the reader: Show them how the information in the paper can be applied in real life.
• Point to the broader implications: This can emphasize the importance of your paper.
• Pose a thought-provoking question: This may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic and may help bring your ideas together to create a new meaning.
• Push the boundaries: Forecast future trends and the need for future research. Consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings. 

Avoid:

• A flat summary with no new interpretation, introducing a significant new idea or subtopic.
• Presenting new evidence (evdience should ONLY be in the body of the essay).
• Thinking that you have to solve a significant issue (like world hunger) in the final sentence.

Sample 5-sentence Concluding Paragraph Structure:

Link to previous paragraph. Offer a brief summary where you refer back to problems or issues foreshadowed in the introduction and identify solutions. Identify main reasons/causes/factors . Reinforce the thesis statement. Recommendations/speculation on future action.

*Adapted from Ontario Tech Libraries. Last updated May 2023.